Book Two: A Criticism of the Highest Values That Have Prevailed Hitherto
A Criticism of the Words: Improvement, Perfecting, Elevation§393 Reflecting upon universal subjects is always retrograde: the ultimate “desiderata” concerning men, for instance, have never been regarded as problems by philosophers. They always postulate the “improvement” of man, quite naively, as though by means of some intuition they had answered the question, “Why we ought to “improve?” To what extent is it desirable that man should be more virtuous or more intelligent or happier? Granting that nobody yet knows the “wherefore” of mankind, all such desiderata have no sense whatever; and if one aspires to one of these things, who knows, perhaps one is precluded from desiring the other. Is an increase in virtue compatible with an increase of intelligence and insight? Dubito: only too often shall I have occasion to show that the reverse is true. Has virtue, as an end, in the strict sense of the word, not always been opposed to happiness hitherto? And again, does it not require misfortune, abstinence and self-castigation as a necessary means? And if the aim were to arrive at the deepest insight, would it not therefore be necessary to renounce all hope of an increase in happiness and to choose danger, adventure, mistrust and seduction as a road to enlightenment? And if one desires happiness; maybe one should join the ranks of the “poor in spirit.”